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Part of the reason that EPP is being practiced by more and more organizations is that it is built upon core principles that benefit our economy, environment, and society. Consequently, although information gaps exist, by using a continual improvement process, better purchasing decisions will be made in the years to come.
Each of the topics below is an expansive field of study. Below are brief descriptions and additional resources.
- Product Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
Life cycle assessment is a "cradle-to-grave" approach for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product. "Cradle-to-grave" begins with the gathering of raw materials from the earth to create the product and ends at the point when all materials are returned to the earth. LCA enables the estimation of the cumulative environmental impacts resulting from all stages in the product life cycle, such as raw material extraction, material transportation, product use, and ultimate product disposal. By including the impacts throughout the product life cycle, LCA provides a comprehensive view of the environmental aspects of the product.
The LCA technique assesses environmental aspects and impacts by:
- Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and materials inputs and environmental releases,
- Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases, and
- Interpreting the results to make a more informed decision.
In practice, LCA can be expensive to perform, but costs are coming down as LCA is more widely used. Furthermore, there are several software tools available that make the analysis easier. LCA has been manipulated by some organizations to provide desirable results so anyone using LCA should consider how the analysis was funded and if it is from a non-biased source.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has available an introduction to Life Cycle Assessment, case studies and resources. [7] There is an International Standard on Life Cycle Assessment in the International Standards Organization's Environmental Management Standards ISO 14000 series, found in ISO 14040.
- Cradle to Cradle ™ (C2C) product design
In contrast to a "Cradle to Grave" approach, the C2C approach reorients the design of products and systems so waste from one process becomes an input to another. Waste equals food. There is no grave. This is accomplished by designing products and systems so materials can flow in closed-loop cycles as either biological nutrients or technical nutrients (e.g., metals and chemicals). In a C2C world, products are designed for reuse and recycling so materials can be separated from one another to eliminate contamination. If everything is reused, there is zero waste.
Expect to hear more about the C2C design, developed by William McDonough and Michael Braungart, as more Fortune 500 companies design products and systems using a C2C approach. In China, C2C is being used in the design of several new cities and as an industrial protocol. [8] In the summer of 2005, C2C certification became available for materials and products. [9]
In practice, C2C products may not be realized initially and it may be viewed as a long term vision for our industrial society. C2C forces product and systems redesign. The C2C movement can be expected to provide much better information on materials, which will assist product designers.
McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry (MBDC) created and developed the C2C approach, along with the C2C certification program.
- Benefits to human health, the environment, and economy
EPP provides a variety of benefits that can range from financial, human health and the environment, to larger societal benefits.
Financial costs and benefits are the easiest to quantify. The purchasing price and frequency of purchase is weighed against operating costs, maintenance repair and replacement costs, occupational health costs, and liability. In contrast, environmental and societal costs and benefits are much harder to quantify and incorporate into decision making.
Commonly cited benefits include reduced air pollution and water emissions, materials and energy efficiency, less waste in landfills, reductions in hazardous and toxic substances, increased durability, etc. Many times we can't place a specific value to the benefits without extensive study. That is why there is legislation that directs the creation of allowable emissions or bans certain substances. It would be cost-prohibitive to analyze costs and benefits for individual situations.
EPP considers a product over its entire life, from raw material extraction to transport, use, and final end-of-use management or disposal. The analysis acknowledges direct and indirect environmental, health, and financial costs. Consequently, a product that has a lower initial purchase price than a similar but more environmentally preferable product, may cost more over the long term.
Unfortunately, complete analysis of the costs and benefits is quite rare and can be expensive. The result is that most emphasis is placed on the easy-to-obtain initial purchase price or "first cost," followed by operations and maintenance costs. As we become more sophisticated in analyzing a fuller range of benefits, better decision making can result. Fortunately, there are a variety of software tools that can assist in this analysis and over time we can expect to see better analysis.
Economic benefits include but are not limited to:
- Reducing materials consumption
- Providing a useful outlet for collected recycled material
- Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
- Conserving water
- Conserving energy
- Increasing the use of renewable products
- Reducing the presence of toxic and hazardous substances in the workplace and environment
These benefits in turn:
- Improve public and occupational health and safety
- Improve wildlife habitats
- Decrease air, water, and soil contamination
- Improve compliance with regulations
- Decrease costs associated with waste management, disposal, and cleanup
- Promote a sustainable economy
- Develop markets for environmentally preferable goods and services [10]
Here are some examples of where economic benefits exist:
- Avoiding hazardous substances and preventing pollution can reduce health and disposal costs and regulatory liability.
- Reusable, refillable, durable, and repairable products are usually more cost-effective over time than single-use or disposable products. [11]
- Conserving energy is a simple and effective way to save money.
- Purchasing copiers and printers that are capable of duplex printing can reduce paper costs.
- Some recycled-content products (RCP) - such as janitorial paper products, corrugated packaging, padded mailers, latex paint, compost, mulch, remanufactured toner cartridges, and many others - are priced the same as or less than their non-recycled counterparts. Some durable RCPs, such as recycled plastic lumber and rubberized asphalt, often cost more initially than comparable non-RCPs; however, they have lower overall costs because they are more durable and require less maintenance.
- Buying recycled products supports the economy. Diversion creates twice as many jobs, double the income, and twice the sales per ton of material than does disposal. [12]
- Using water efficiently reduces the cost of pumping, heating, and treating water.
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